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DIVISION S-4 - SOIL FERTILITY & PLANT NUTRITION

Quality of Amended Mine Soils After Sixteen Years

^a Dep. of Forestry, Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA 24061
^b Dep. of Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA 24061

* Corresponding author (jaburger{at}vt.edu)

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Soil quality research has focused on intensively managed agricultural and forest soils, but the concept and importance of soil quality is also pertinent to reclaimed mine soils and other disturbed ecosystems. Adding organic amendments has been used as a means for ameliorating mine soils and improving their quality, but the long-term effects of amendments on soil quality are not known. In 1982, a mined site was amended with seven different surface treatments: a control (nothing added), 30 cm of native soil, 112 Mg ha^-1 sawdust, and municipal sewage sludge (SS) at rates of 22, 56, 112, and 224 Mg ha^-1. Four replicates of each treatment were installed as a randomized complete block design. Each plot was split and planted with pitch x loblolly pine hybrid (Pinus rigida x taeda) trees and Kentucky-31 tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). During the 16-yr period, organic matter content, total organic N, N mineralization potential, aggregate stability, and other physical and chemical properties were measured as mine soil quality indicators. The comparative ability of these organic amendments to positively affect organic matter content, total N, and other parameters was most apparent and pronounced after 5 yr. However, after 16 yr, soil organic matter (SOM) content and total N appeared to be equilibrating at 10 000 and 750 kg ha^-1, respectively. Organic matter inputs by vegetation alone across the 16-yr period in the control plots resulted in organic matter and N mineralization potential values comparable to levels in the organically-amended plots, indicating the overriding importance of vegetation in the soil recovery process. After 16 yr, there appears to be no lasting soil quality improvements due to addition of organic amendments to this mine soil. Amendments improved short-term production, but their cost of transport and application may be difficult to justify based on long-term soil quality improvement.

Abbreviations: CEC, cation-exchange capacity • LF, light fraction, SOM, soil organic matter • SS, sewage sludge • TKN, total Kjeldahl N

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
LONG-TERM RESTORATION of mine soil quality and ecosystem function of disturbed sites depends on reclamation that allows reestablishment of vegetation that can thrive and sustain itself. Conversely, Bradshaw (1987) points out that reconstruction of an ecosystem and mine soil quality depends on vegetation for improving the soil physical, chemical, and biological condition of disturbed sites. Therefore, a mine soil medium of sufficient quality is needed that allows adequate growth and productivity of reclamation species that will further improve mine soil properties.

In the process of defining and monitoring sustainable land management, soil scientists and practitioners have tried to identify specific soil physical, chemical, and biological indicators associated with soil quality, fertility, and health (Parr et al., 1992; Karlen and Stott, 1994; Larson and Pierce, 1994; Doran and Parkin, 1996). Soil properties identified by these authors as basic indicators, or part of a minimum data set of soil quality, are SOM, total organic N and C, aggregate stability, aeration, macroporosity, water holding capacity, microbial biomass, mineralizable C and N, bulk density, resistance to erosion, nutrient availability, pH, and electrical conductivity.

Many of the soil properties found in these soil quality minimum data sets are those that reportedly limit mine soil and plant productivity on mined sites. They include soil acidity (Daniels and Amos, 1981), N and P availability (Bradshaw, 1983; Marrs et al. 1983; Daniels and Zipper, 1988; Roberts et al., 1988b), micronutrient imbalance or toxicity, high electrical conductivity (Torbert et al., 1989), compaction, inadequate depth for rooting, and low water holding capacity (Torbert et al., 1988; Daniels and Amos, 1984).

Low mine soil fertility is nearly always a plant growth limiting factor on mined sites. Bradshaw (1983) recommended that 1000 kg ha^-1 total soil N be recognized as a minimum standard for proper plant growth and ecosystem development. Marrs et al. (1983) explain that N accumulation is very slow in new ecosystems and that total soil N capital should be 10 to 20 times the annual plant uptake. Bradshaw (1983) further reports that P may be limited due to the high fixation capacities of exposed mine spoil composed of sandstone. This P binding potential of mine soils was clearly demonstrated in a study by Roberts et al. (1988a), who reported a P deficiency in tall fescue due to high soil P fixing capacity.

Seaker and Sopper (1988) stressed the importance of SOM accumulation, decomposition, and minimum levels of organic C and N contents for productive mine soils. In agriculture, crop residues, compost, manures, and synthetic fertilizers are traditional soil conditioners that are added to improve these soil properties and enhance soil function and quality. Most surface-mined sites lack organic matter levels necessary for optimum soil functioning. In the process of surface mining in the Appalachian region, topsoil is seldom recovered and replaced on the surface as a growth medium as required by federal and state laws. Mine operators obtain "topsoil waivers" that allow them to substitute mine spoils for the surface plant-growth medium, based on the argument that native topsoils are too thin to recover, and that recovery operations are too difficult on steep slopes. Therefore, the depauperate nature of mine soils may benefit from addition of organic amendments that will initiate nutrient cycling and help overcome other chemical and physical limitations. Accordingly, we hypothesized that organic amendments applied on surface mined land would accelerate nutrient cycling, provide a receptive environment for vegetation, and improve overall soil quality and productivity. The specific objectives of this study were to determine the comparative ability of topsoil, sawdust, and SS soil amendments (i) to improve mine soil quality as measured by SOM content and quality, aggregate stability, and mineralizable N; and (ii) to determine the effect of these amendments on long-term changes in SOM content and related chemical and physical properties after 16 yr.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Study Site Description and Design
The experiment was undertaken in Wise County, Virginia (37°00' N, 82°41' W). Long-term mean annual precipitation and temperature are 1150 mm and 11 °C, respectively. The mine soils were classified as loamy-skeletal mixed, mesic Typic Udorthents (Roberts, 1986). In 1982, a 1-m-deep base layer of 2:1 sandstone to siltstone overburden material was uniformly applied over the study site. Experimental plots, 7 x 3.5 m, were established in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Seven amendment treatments were applied, consisting of a control constructed of 2:1 sandstone to siltstone overburden material (standard mine soil), 30 cm native soil composed of a mixture of A, E, B, C, and Cr horizon material from a neighboring forest soil (Berks series: loamy-skeletal, mixed, active, mesic Typic Dystrudepts), hardwood sawdust applied at 112 Mg ha^-1, and applications of aerobically digested municipal SS at the following rates: 22, 56, 112, and 224 Mg ha^-1. The composition of the SS is shown in Table 1. Because of the detrimental effect the 224 Mg ha^-1 sludge treatment had on initial tree seedling survival (Moss, 1986), results from the 224 Mg ha^-1 treatment were not included in this study.

Field Sampling
The effects of topsoil, sawdust, municipal SS, and control treatments on soil properties were evaluated several times across a 16-yr period: (i) the first growing season after initial amendment, (ii) after 3 and 5 growing seasons, and (iii) 16 yr after initial amendment.

Composite soil samples, collected in 1982, 1987, and 1998, were composed of three randomly-located subsamples within each grass and tree subplot. Subsamples were collected from the surface horizon at a depth of 0 to 10 cm. Care was taken to avoid previous sampling sites by using a grid map. Soils were air-dried and sieved to pass a 2-mm sieve to determine fine earth and coarse fragment contents. Subsamples were collected and oven-dried at 105 °C for 24 h to determine gravimetric moisture content. In 1998, two bulk density cores were obtained from each subplot using a hammer-driven core sampler. Bulk density was determined for both the fine earth fraction and whole soil. The fine earth fraction was determined by adjusting the total mass and volume of the cores based on the coarse fragment content and assuming a particle density of 2.65 Mg m^-3. Micro- and macroporosity were determined using a tension table with a 50-cm tension (Kohnke, 1968). Available water at 33 kPa was obtained using a pressure plate (Klute, 1986). Bulk density core samples were oven-dried at 105 °C for 24 h to obtain unit mass per unit volume.

Soil Characterization and Laboratory Analysis
Particle size of the fine earth fraction was determined by the hydrometer method (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Total organic C and SOM were estimated using the Walkley-Black wet oxidation method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). A companion dry combustion analysis of total organic C was performed using the loss-on-ignition method (Sybron-Thermolyne Muffle Furnace, Inc., Dubuque, IA) at 550 °C for 24 h. For soil samples collected in 1998, light and heavy fraction SOM were determined using the modified density flotation procedure of Strickland and Sollins (1987) and Gregorich and Ellert (1993). Aggregate stability of the 1998 samples was determined using a wet sieving procedure (Kemper and Rosenau, 1986). Nitrogen mineralization potential was estimated in 1985 and 1998 using an aerobic incubation procedure outlined by Stanford and Smith (1972) and later modified by Burger and Pritchett (1984). Inorganic plant available NH⁺₄-N was determined using an anaerobic mineralization incubation procedure (Keeney, 1982).

Available P was extracted with 0.5 M NaHCO^-₃ adjusted to pH 8.5. Extractable P was determined using the modified Murphy-Riley ascorbic acid procedure and analyzed by spectrophotometry (Olsen and Sommers, 1982). Exchangeable cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺) were extracted with 1 M NH⁺₄ OAc solution, buffered to pH 7, and concentrations determined by inductively coupled plasma spectrometry. Soil reaction was determined with a pH electrode in a 2:1 water to soil extract. Exchangeable acidity was determined using a 1 M KCl replacing solution and titration to a phenolphthalene end point with a Mettler Dl2 auto-titrator (Mettler Instruments, Inc., Hightstown, NJ). Electrical conductivity was measured with a conductivity meter in a 5:1 water:soil extract and standardized to 0.01 M KCl reference solution (Rhoades, 1982).

Statistical Design and Data Analysis
Because there was no effect of vegetation type on soil quality indicators, soil data and treatment effects were analyzed as a split-block design with treatment means of the main effect pooled across vegetation types (herbaceous vegetation vs. pine trees). A general linear model procedure was used for an analysis of variance and determination of the effects of amendments on mine soil parameters (SAS Institute, 1993). When significant F-values were obtained (P < 0.10), Duncan's multiple range test was used to separate the mean responses of the treatments: control, topsoil, sawdust, and different levels of SS. A nonlinear procedure (PROC NLIN) was used to determine potentially mineralizable N (N_o) and the rate constant (k) for each treatment.

Dependent and independent variables were analyzed for significant correlations using PROC CORR procedure, and Pearson's correlation coefficients were computed. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to test the relationship of key soil variables (SOM content, aggregate stability, and N mineralization potential) to tree volume per plot and herbaceous biomass production. A stepwise selection procedure was used within the multiple linear regression analysis to determine the best model by optimizing R², mean square error (MSE), and the sum of squares of all predicted error.

	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Soil Quality Indicators
Soil Organic Matter
In 1982, the year after the study was put in, SOM content of the amended mine soils was commensurate with the amount of SOM added as part of the treatment (Fig. 1) . At 14 Mg ha^-1, the sawdust-treated plots contained the highest level of SOM. The SOM content of plots treated with SS increased linearly with increased application rates. The control and native soil-treated plots contained 2 Mg ha^-1 SOM in the surface 10 cm, which were considerably lower than levels typical of forest soils (Pritchett and Fisher, 1987). The low level of SOM on the native soil-treated plots was due to a dilution effect from mixing the A, E, B, C, and C_r soil horizons and incorporation of this material with the minespoil. After five growing seasons (1987), SOM levels of all treatments (except sawdust) increased. Soil organic matter levels of the control, topsoil, and sludge (22 and 56 Mg ha^-1) more than doubled during this time. The increase in SOM is attributed to SOM inputs via root and litter cycling and decomposition of soil organisms.

View larger version (23K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1. Soil organic matter content (kg ha-1) of organically-amended mine soils during 1982, 1987, and 1998. Means within years followed by the same letter were not significantly different. IBDU = isobutyl di-urea, SS = sewage sludge.

The increase in SOM content during the first 5 yr on the sludge-treated plots is attributed to the fertilization effect of the sludge causing high initial biomass productivity and vegetation inputs. The decline in SOM content of the amended plots corresponded with the decline in productivity of the vegetation after the fourth growing season. The decline in SOM content from 1987 to 1998 in the sewage-sludge treated plots suggests that the SOM inputs from vegetation were easily decomposable and were oxidized by biologically-mediated processes. The overall decline in SOM concentration of the sawdust-amended plots across 16 yr is attributed to decomposition and mineralization of the high level of biologically-reactive SOM initially applied. With time, as the new soil and plant system approaches an equilibrium, SOM levels should stabilize at a level consistent with the climate and the vegetation growing on the mine soils. After 16 yr, SOM levels of all treatments either increased or decreased within a range of 8 to 10 Mg ha^-1, as they approached an equilibrium SOM concentration level of 40 g kg^-1 (4%), a level commonly found in native soils of the region. It appears that around 100 Mg ha^-1 sludge or sawdust or equivalent material must be added at the time of reclamation to achieve initial organic matter contents equivalent to those that will finally be achieved by vegetation inputs alone after 16 yr.

After 16 yr, the light fraction (LF) organic matter accounted for 1.9 to 2.9% of the whole soil on a dry weight basis (Table 3). These LF estimates are comparable to levels reported by Christensen (1992) for natural soils. The LF contained a significant proportion (LF:SOM ratio) of whole SOM, but the proportion was not significantly different among treatments (Table 3). Overall, LF organic matter was more concentrated in the control, sawdust, and sludge-treated plots than in the native soil-treated plots.

Aggregate Stability After Sixteen Years
Aggregate stability of the 1998 samples was little different among treatments; it ranged from 52 to 65% (Table 3). The SS-treated plots had the highest levels of stable aggregates, and the native soil-treated plots had the lowest amount of water stable aggregates, probably due to the dilution effect of fewer coarse fragments (Table 7). Doubling the application of SS from 56 to 112 Mg ha^-1 did not significantly increase aggregate stability. Aggregate stability of the treated mine soils was not significantly different from the control, indicating that natural organic inputs from vegetation alone might be as important in the formation of aggregates as any amendments used in this study.

View larger version (36K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2. Total soil N (TKN) and mineralizable N (No) on amended mine soils in 1985 and 1998. IBDU = isobutyl di-urea, SS = sewage sludge.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 4. Total Kjeldahl N (TKN), nitrogen mineralization (No), rate constant (k), anaerobically mineralizable N (Nmin), and light fraction (LF) N in amended mine soils 3 (Moss et al., 1989) and 16 yr after reclamation.

Associated Soil Chemical and Physical Properties
Extractable Phosphorus
Daniels and Zipper (1988) generalized that N is initially the plant-growth limiting factor on young mine soils in the Appalachian region, but through time, P becomes more limiting. Extractable P was measured at all three stages of the study. Phosphorus content was highest in the sludge-treated plots and increased with increasing sludge application rate. Through time, the control, native soil, sawdust, and 22 Mg ha^-1 sludge-treated plots approached comparable values. After 16 yr, the 56 and 112 Mg ha^-1 sludge treatments remained significantly higher than the other treatments. The higher amount of extractable P may be the most significant contribution of sludge amendments to mine soil quality (Fig. 3) .

View larger version (22K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3. Sodium bicarbonate extractable P of amended mine soils for 1982, 1987, and1998. IBDU = isobutyl di-urea. Sewage sludge (SS) was applied at rates of Mg ha-1.

Exchangeable base cation (K, Mg, and Ca) levels were low or nearly depleted across all treatments (Table 5). Pichtel et al. (1994) reported decreases of 50% or more in the concentrations of P, K, Mg, and Ca on some topsoil-amended plots with increased soil depth. They attributed the decrease in nutrient content to plant growth and the accumulation of these nutrients on the surface as crop residues. In our study, the forage crop has never been harvested, which suggests similar accumulation of nutrients on the surface may be possible.

Soil Bulk Density and Porosity
Soil bulk density was calculated for the whole soil and the fine earth fraction (<2 mm). The bulk density for the fine earth fraction ranged from 1.09 to 1.38 Mg m^-3 and the bulk density of the whole soil ranged from 1.27 to 1.51 Mg m^-3 (Table 6). Soil bulk density was inversely correlated to organic matter content; as organic matter was added and accumulated in mine soils, bulk density correspondingly decreased. Bulk density of the native soil treatment was significantly higher than the control, sawdust, and sludge-amended treatments at 1.38 Mg m^-3, which is comparable to values for local agricultural soils of the region. Overall, mine soils amended with at least 56 Mg ha^-1 sludge or more organic material exhibited significantly lower whole-soil bulk densities than either the control or the native-soil treatments.

Rock Fragments and Particle-Size Distribution
In 1982, the first growing season after initial amendment, coarse fragment contents of the control and various organic amendments were not significantly different, ranging from 65 to 71% (Table 7). After five growing seasons, the coarse fragment content of the native soil-amended mine soils was significantly lower than that of other treatments at 32%. We believe that the change in content was due to the rapid weathering of the native soil material that consisted of large amounts of E, B, C, and Cr horizons. After 16 yr, an observable difference remains between the native soil-treated plots and other treatments. The control, sawdust, and sludge-treated plots all had similar coarse fragment contents, suggesting that the treatments had little or no differential effect on rock weathering across the 16-yr period.

Soil texture in mine soils is particularly important for nutrient retention and CEC. Particle-size distribution of the fine earth fraction (<2 mm) was rather uniform across all treatments (Table 7). Across the 16-yr period, the sand to silt content generally followed a 2:1 ratio that coincided with the proportions of the original sandstone and siltstone mixture that was applied during construction of the experiment plots. In 1982 and 1987, only four treatments were tested for soil texture. The 1987 data showed some slight variation across treatments. However, in 1998, after 15 growing seasons and additional opportunity for weathering, there were virtually no textural differences among treatments or across time (Table 7). Clay content for all treatment plots averaged 10% for all 3 yr.

	CONCLUSIONS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
The sawdust and SS amendments were initially superior to the control and native soil-treated plots in improving key mine soil quality indicators. The comparative ability of these organic amendments to positively affect organic matter content and total N was most apparent and pronounced after five growing seasons. However, after 16 yr, SOM concentrations and total N appear to be equilibrating at 10000 and 750 kg ha^-1, respectively. Aggregate stability and N mineralization values were comparable across treatments. Organic matter inputs by vegetation alone across the 16-yr period in the control plots resulted in organic matter and N mineralization potential values comparable to levels in the organically amended plots, indicating the importance of vegetation in the soil recovery process and the rapid rate of incorporation in new mine soils.

A doubling of extractable P levels may be the greatest long-lasting effect of the sludge treatment on mine soil quality. After 16 yr, available P in the 56 and 112 Mg ha^-1 SS treatments was about two times higher than the average of the other treatments.

Ecosystem stability and successful mined land reclamation depend on the restoration of soil fertility, air/water balance, and overall mine soil quality. This study shows that use of organic amendments initially improved organic matter content, total N, potentially mineralizable N, aggregate stability, and other soil properties. However, 16 yr later, there appear to be no lasting soil quality improvements due to amendments above that of the control treatment, which received no organic amendments other than natural incorporation of organic matter from plant production. An argument for applying SS and sawdust to mine soils can be made based on short-term (1–5 yr) soil quality enhancement, but it would be difficult to justify the cost of transporting and applying these materials based on an argument for permanently improving soil quality over that achievable with vegetation alone.

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
The authors acknowledge support from the Powell River Project and the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement.

Received for publication April 13, 2000.

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