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DIVISION S-6-SOIL & WATER MANAGEMENT & CONSERVATION

Irrigation with Effluent Water

Effects of Rainfall Energy on Soil Infiltration

Inst. of Soil, Water and Environmental Sci., Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), The Volcani Center, P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel

vwguy{at}agri.gov.il

	ABSTRACT

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 
Seal formation at soil surfaces is significantly affected by raindrop kinetic energy (KE). We hypothesized that the deterioration in seal permeability of soils irrigated with effluents, relative to that of soils irrigated with fresh water (FW), is affected by raindrop KE. The effects of four droplet KE levels (3.6, 8.0, 12.4, and 15.9 kJ m^-3) on the infiltration parameters of four Israeli smectitic soils that had been irrigated with FW or effluents, were studied with a drip-type rain simulator. At the lowest KE (3.6 kJ m^-3), final infiltration rate (IR) values for the FW-irrigated samples were in the range of 9 to 14 mm h^-1 and were significantly higher than the corresponding values for the effluent-irrigated samples, suggesting that seals were not fully developed at this low KE and that the irrigation water type played a major role in determining soil permeability. At high KE (15.9 kJ m^-3), the differences between the final IRs of FW-irrigated and effluent-irrigated samples of a given soil were small (<1.1 mm h^-1), suggesting that at high KE, the effect of drop impact overshadowed the effects of water quality on the final IR. Rate of seal formation was faster in the effluent-irrigated samples than in the FW-irrigated ones, regardless of rain KE. The sensitivity of all four soils to the use of effluents was the greatest at a rain KE of 8 kJ m^-3. At both lower and higher rain KE levels, the effect of effluents on the final IR, relative to that of FW, was less severe.

Abbreviations: DW, distilled water • ESP, exchangeable sodium percentage • FW, fresh water • IR, infiltration rate • KE, kinetic energy

	INTRODUCTION

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 
THE USE OF SECONDARY-TREATED WASTEWATER (effluents) for irrigation of cultivated fields has recently become a common practice, especially in regions suffering from a shortage of FW. Effluents differ from their fresh source water by their higher electrolyte concentration and by the presence of dissolved organic matter and suspended solids. In Israel, the total salt concentration in effluents is 17 to 20 mmol_c L^-1, which is about twice that of FW (8–9 mmol_c L^-1); there is also an increase in the sodium adsorption ratio, from 2.5 in FW to 5–8 in the effluent (Feigin et al., 1991). Irrigation with water of a moderate sodium adsorption ratio (6) leads to soils with exchangeable sodium percentages (ESPs) of a similar value (USSLS, 1954). The hydraulic properties of soils having such an ESP are not likely to be affected during the irrigation season, but could deteriorate when these soils are leached with distilled water (DW), used to simulate rain water.

The levels of dissolved organic matter and suspended solids in effluents depend on the quality of the raw sewage water and the degree of its treatment. Suspended solids present in effluents may accumulate and physically block water-conducting pores, thereby leading to a sharp decrease in soil hydraulic conductivity (De Vries, 1972; Rice 1974; Vinten et al., 1983). With respect to the possible effects of dissolved organic matter on the soil, a number of studies have shown that its presence in effluents enhanced soil-clay dispersivity, increased the clay flocculation value (e.g., Durgin and Chaney, 1984; Frenkel et al., 1992; Tarchitzky et al., 1993, 1999), and was considered responsible for a decrease in the hydraulic conductivity of a sandy loam soil (Tarchitzky et al., 1999).

The formation of a seal at soil surfaces exposed to the beating action of raindrops is a common phenomenon in many cultivated soils, worldwide. Surface seals are thin (<2 mm) and are characterized by greater density, higher shear strength, finer pores, and lower saturated hydraulic conductivity, compared with those of the bulk soil (McIntyre, 1958; Bradford et al., 1987). Seal formation is caused by two mechanisms: (i) a physical breakdown of soil aggregates caused by the mechanical impact of waterdrops; and (ii) a physico–chemical dispersion and movement of clay particles into a region 0.1 to 0.5 mm deep, where they lodge and clog the conducting pores (McIntyre, 1958; Agassi et al., 1981). The two mechanisms act simultaneously and the former enhances the latter.

Surface sealing is significantly affected by the electrolyte concentration of the soil solution at the soil surface (i.e., that of the applied water) and the ESP of the soil. Low electrolyte concentration in the soil solution and high ESP enhance clay swelling and dispersion, leading to easier breakdown of the surface aggregates and to the formation of a less permeable seal (Agassi et al., 1981; Kazman et al., 1983). Even at low ESP levels (<6), a small increase in ESP was reported to result in a sharp decrease in the infiltration rate (IR) of the seal (Kazman et al., 1983). Thus, it is expected that soils irrigated with effluents, and subsequently having ESP levels of 6, will exhibit a higher susceptibility to seal formation than soils irrigated with FW.

The physical breakdown of surface aggregates (i.e., the first mechanism) is determined also, to a large extent, by the KE of the waterdrops (Moldenhauer and Kemper, 1969). In soils with stable aggregates, high-KE waterdrops were needed to form a seal (Agassi et al., 1985). In unstable soils, a seal may be formed under low-KE waterdrops by the process of fast wetting and aggregate slacking (Le Bissonnais, 1990). Studying the effects of drop impact energy in the range of 3 to 24 kJ m^-3 on two Israeli non-sodic loamy soils, Betzalel et al. (1995) found that with an increase in raindrop KE, the IR for any given rain depth decreased. Shainberg and Singer (1988) observed that sodic soils were more susceptible to sealing by low-KE raindrops than were Ca-soils.

It is hypothesized that the susceptibility to seal formation of soils that had been irrigated for long periods with effluents would depend on raindrop KE. When exposed to high-KE rain, effluent-irrigated and FW-irrigated soils should show similar sensitivities to sealing and a low IR because the KE of the raindrops is high enough to disintegrate the aggregates in both types of soils. Conversely, under conditions of low-KE rain, when the physico–chemical clay dispersion (the second mechanism of seal formation) is the more important mechanism in determining soil sensitivity to sealing, effluent-irrigated soils should show higher susceptibility to seal formation and lower IR than soils irrigated with FW. The objective of our study was to examine the above hypothesis by studying the effects of the KE of water droplets on the infiltration parameters of four smectitic soils that had been irrigated for >15 yr with FW or effluents.

	Materials and methods

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 
Soils
Four calcareous smectitic soils, representing the main arable soils in Israel, were chosen for this study: a loamy loess (Calcic Haploxeralf) from Be'er Sheva Valley; a dark brown sandy clay grumusol (Chromic Haploxerert) from Hafetz Haim, the Pleshet Plains (grumusol HH); and two dark brown heavy clay grumusols from Yagur, the Zevulun Valley (grumusol Y) and Eilon, the Western Galilee (grumusol E). Samples of the cultivated layer (0–250 mm) of each soil type were taken from adjacent fields irrigated for >15 yr, one with FW and the other with effluents. Selected physical and chemical properties of the soils, determined by standard analytical methods (Klute, 1986; Page et al., 1986), are presented in Table 1 . The properties of the effluent used for irrigating each soil type are presented in Table 2 . For the ions, the values given in Table 2 are the actual values in the effluents used for irrigation because electrolyte concentration and composition did not change significantly in the past years. The organic load (biological oxygen demand [BOD], chemical oxygen demand [COD], and total suspended solids) in the effluents fluctuated over the years, thus the values given represent data obtained in 1998. Regarding the FW, the samples were taken from fields that were irrigated from the same source of FW, namely the national water carrier of Israel.

Air-dried aggregates, crushed to pass through a 4.0-mm sieve, were packed in 200- by 400-mm trays, 40 mm deep, over a 10-mm thick layer of coarse sand. The trays were saturated with tap water for 1 h at a matric potential of -0.2 kPa and were then placed in the rainfall simulator at a slope of 15% and exposed to 60–120 mm of DW rain. During each storm, water infiltrating through the soil was collected for 2-min periods, separated by 2-min intervals, in graduated cylinders placed underneath a special outlet at the bottom of the tray, and the water volume was recorded as a function of time. Infiltration water was collected until the volume of water in the cylinders in three consecutive samples differed by no more than 5%, indicating that the infiltration rate was approaching a steady-state value. Three replicates were used concurrently for each treatment.

Data Analysis
Infiltration data obtained from the rainfall simulator were analyzed with the nonlinear equation proposed by Morin and Benyamini (1977):

(1)

where I_t is the instantaneous infiltration rate (mm h^-1); I_i is the initial infiltration rate (mm h^-1); I_f is the final infiltration rate (mm h^-1); is the soil coefficient related to surface aggregate stability (mm^-1); t is the time (h) from the beginning of the storm; and p is the rain intensity (mm h^-1).

A nonlinear regression program used the measured I_t, I_f, and P values to calculate the other two parameters of the equation (I_i and ) that gave the best coefficient of determination (R² > 0.9) between paired calculated and measured I_t values.

	Results and discussion

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 
Irrigation of the soils with effluents increased their ESP from 1.5 to 2.3 (in FW) to 2.4 to 7.5 (Table 1). The sodium adsorption ratio of the effluents in western Galilee (grumusol E) is exceptionally low (Table 2), therefore the ESP of this soil remained low even after a long period of irrigation with effluents. In addition, except for the grumusol HH, irrigating for more than 15 yr with effluents had no significant effect on the organic-matter content of the soils (Table 1). Very intensive cultivation under a Mediterranean climate generally prevented the accumulation of organic matter in fields irrigated with effluents.

Seal formation is commonly characterized by changes in the IR with cumulative rain. The effect of raindrop KE on the IR of the four smectitic soils, which had been irrigated with effluent or FW, is presented in Fig. 1 . The data indicate that both the KE of the waterdrops and the quality of the water used for irrigation had strong effects on the IR. In general, the IR of the soils decreased with an increase in rain KE; and the IR values were lower for the soils irrigated with effluents than for the soils irrigated with FW. However, the magnitude of these effects depended on soil properties.

View larger version (43K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1 Infiltration rate curves for the fresh water–treated and effluent-treated samples of the four soils subjected to the various rain kinetic energy levels. Data points represent measured values, means of three replicates. Bars indicate ± one standard deviation

The mean final IR values of the various treatments for the four soils are presented in Fig. 2 . Results of a multifactor analysis of variance showed that each main variable (i.e., soil type, irrigation water quality, and raindrop KE) significantly affected the final IR. Moreover, a significant interaction was observed (Table 3) among the three variables (soil type x irrigation water quality x raindrop KE) in their effect on the final IR. Thus, a contrast test (SAS, 1995) was performed to determine the differences among the final values of individual treatments.

View larger version (24K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2 Mean final infiltration rate as a function of rain kinetic energy for (a) samples irrigated with fresh water, and (b) samples irrigated with effluents. Points labeled by the same letter do not differ significantly at the 0.05 level

In soils irrigated with FW, the decrease in the final IR with an increase in rain KE was more pronounced in the loess than in the grumusols (Fig. 2). A similar but less pronounced trend was noted in the effluent-irrigated samples. The sharp decrease in the final IR values of the loess with the increase in KE was mainly due to the high final IR under low-KE rain (Fig. 2). At low KE, the impact of the waterdrops was apparently not sufficient to form a seal, thus the final IR was then determined by the infiltration rate of the soil profile and not by that of the soil surface. Under rain with low KE, the IR of the loess, with 22% clay, was higher than that of the grumusols, with >40% clay. In our rainfall simulation studies, the soils were exposed to fast wetting, leading to substantial aggregate slacking (Le Bissonnais, 1990; Levy et al., 1997). In grumusols with stable aggregates, the hydraulic conductivity is often similar to or higher than that of the loess (Levy et al., 1999), but upon fast wetting and substantial aggregate slacking their IR decreased to values lower than that of the loess. Conversely, when high-energy rain (15.9 kJ m^-3) was used and a developed seal was formed, the final IR of the loess was similar to that of the grumusols.

For all four soils, when the lowest KE (3.6 kJ m^-3) was used, final IR values for FW-irrigated samples were substantially higher than those for effluent-irrigated ones. This finding was ascribed to the differences between the ESP of the FW-irrigated and effluent-irrigated samples in the loess and the grumusols (HH and Y) (Table 1). In the grumusol (E), the small difference in ESP between the FW-irrigated and effluent-irrigated samples (1.5 and 2.4, respectively) caused only a small (<1.2 mm h^-1), yet significant difference in final IR between the two types of samples.

For the highest KE (15.9 kJ m^-3), final IR values for the four soils were in the range of 4 to 5 mm h^-1 for the FW-irrigated samples and 3.5 to 4.5 mm h^-1 for the effluent-irrigated samples. This narrow range within a given sample type indicated that when high-KE rain was applied, a developed seal was formed and the hydraulic properties of the seals of the four soils were similar, leading to small differences in the final IR values among the soils. Furthermore, for all soils but the grumusol (HH), final IR values in the FW-irrigated samples did not differ significantly from those in the effluent-irrigated samples. These observations suggested that when high-energy rain was used, the impact energy of the raindrops (i.e., the physical mechanism) masked the differences among soils irrigated with water of the same quality. Furthermore, in intensively cultivated soils, small differences in ESP (which contributes to the physico–chemical mechanism) were not sufficient to affect seal properties when high-KE rain was applied, therefore the final IRs of the soils were similar. Cultivation weakens the structural stability of soils, thus, mechanical breakdown of aggregates by the impact of high-KE raindrops played a dominant role in seal formation.

The values of (soil stability coefficient, Eq. [1]) are given in Table 4 . In general, for a given soil and type of irrigation water, the coefficient values increased with increasing rain KE, indicating that the higher the KE of the rain, the faster the formation of the seal and the decrease in IR. The values for a given soil and rain KE were lower for the FW-irrigated samples than for the effluent-irrigated ones. This observation implies that the rates of surface aggregates breakdown and seal formation were higher in the effluent-irrigated samples than in the FW-irrigated ones. Shainberg et al. (1992) proposed that of the two mechanisms contributing to seal formation—aggregate breakdown and clay dispersion—the former is a rapid process and is completed before the full development of the seal; clay dispersion was suggested to be the rate-determining mechanism of sealing. The values in the effluent-irrigated samples were higher than in the FW-irrigated ones, which suggested (as expected) that clay dispersion in the effluent-irrigated samples was enhanced by the higher ESP and determined the rate of seal formation.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 4 Mean soil stability constant (, mm-1) at various rain kinetic energies (KE)

View larger version (18K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3 The ratio of mean final infiltration rate (IR) of effluent-treated samples (FIRe) to mean final IR of fresh water–irrigated samples (FIRf) as a function of rain energy for the four soils

	Summary and conclusions

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 
We compared the susceptibility to seal formation of effluent-irrigated soil samples with that of FW-irrigated soil samples for four calcareous soils exposed to rain of four different KE levels. For both the FW-irrigated and the effluent-irrigated samples, final IR values decreased with an increase in rain KE, and the rate of seal formation (i.e., the rate at which soil permeability declined) increased. At the lowest KE studied (3.6 kJ m^-3), final IR values were significantly lower in the effluent-irrigated samples than in the FW-irrigated ones. At the highest KE (15.9 kJ m^-3), differences in final IR between FW-irrigated and effluent-irrigated samples of a given soil were small and mostly insignificant. It was concluded that when high-KE rain was used, raindrop impact energy was the predominant mechanism that controlled seal formation and permeability; hence both FW-irrigated and effluent-irrigated samples showed similar susceptibility to sealing. Differences in the soil samples because of irrigation water quality (i.e., higher ESP in the effluent-irrigated samples) contributed to determining the IR of the seal, only when low-KE rain was used; under these conditions, effluent-irrigated samples emerged as more susceptible than FW-irrigated samples, to seal formation. More specifically, at a KE of 8 kJ m^-3, samples irrigated with effluent were found to be the most sensitive to seal formation compared with FW-irrigated samples. At the lowest KE (3.6 kJ m^-3), water flow through the soil was determined mainly by the permeability of the soil profile and not by the IR of the surface layer. In calcareous soils, the former is less sensitive than the IR to differences in ESP in the range studied. At higher rain KE, rain properties dictated the soil susceptibility to sealing. Hence, for Mediterranean type rainstorms, it is expected that seal formation of similar permeability will be formed in both FW-irrigated and effluent-irrigated samples.SAS Institute 1995

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
A.I. Mamedov is grateful to MASHAV, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, Israel, for providing him with the funds that enabled him to contribute to this work. This study was supported by grant no. 302-0240-98 from the Chief Scientist, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Israel. The support of the Chief Scientist is gratefully acknowledged.

	NOTES

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 
Contribution from the ARO, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel. No. 638/1999 Ser.

Received for publication February 17, 1999.

	REFERENCES

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 

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This Article Abstract Figures Only Full Text (PDF) Free Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in ISI Web of Science Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (15) Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Mamedov, A.I. Articles by Levy, G.J. Search for Related Content PubMed Articles by Mamedov, A.I. Articles by Levy, G.J. Agricola Articles by Mamedov, A.I. Articles by Levy, G.J.